Working Papers
2024
May 17, 2024
A Framework for Systemwide Liquidity Analysis
Description: We developed a novel Systemwide Liquidity (SWL) framework to identify liquidity stress in the system that goes beyond banks and to assess the role played by non-bank financial institutions (NBFIs) in episodes of liquidity stress. The framework, which complements standard liquidity and interconnectedness analyses, traces the flow of liquidity among various agents in the economy and explores possible transmission channels and amplification mechanisms of correlated liquidity shocks. The framework uses unique balance sheet and asset encumbrance data to demonstrate the importance of assessing liquidity at the system level by allowing for (i) analyses of each agent’s contribution to liquidity stress, (ii) analyses of the impact of different behavioral assumptions (e.g., pecking order of collateral utilization, negative externalities of fire-sales and margin positions), and (iii) policy simulations. Since this framework covers a comprehensive set of financial instruments and transactions, it paves the way for harmonization of systemwide liquidity analysis across countries. We applied this general framework to Mexico in the context of the FSAP. Results for Mexico show that commercial banks safeguard the resiliency of the financial system by backstopping the liquidity needs of other agents. Moreover, certain sectors appear more vulnerable when binding regulatory liquidity constraints trigger risk-averse behavioral responses.
May 17, 2024
New Perspectives on Quantitative Easing and Central Bank Capital Policies
Description: Central banks have come under increasing criticism for large balance sheet losses associated with quantitative easing (QE), and some observers have also argued that QE helped fuel the post-COVID-19 inflation boom. In this paper, we reconsider the conditions under which QE may be warranted considering the recent high inflation experience. We emphasize that the merits of QE should be evaluated based on the macroeconomic stimulus it provides and its effects on the consolidated fiscal position, and not simply on central bank profits or losses. Using an open economy DSGE model with segmented asset markets, we show how QE can provide a sizeable boost to output and inflation in a deep recession and improve the consolidated fiscal position—even if the central bank experiences considerable losses. However, the commitment-based features of QE and the possibility that upside inflation risks are bigger than recognized pre-pandemic call for more caution in using QE closer to full employment. We then consider how central banks might modify their policies for allocating profits to the government in light of large-scale losses. In short, we suggest that a more forward-looking and risk-based approach may be desirable in helping protect central bank financial autonomy and ultimately independence.
May 17, 2024
Sovereign Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) Investing: Chasing Elusive Sustainability
Description: This paper evaluates the progression of the sovereign ESG landscape since the initial comprehensive assessment of the sector in 2021 in “Demystifying Sovereign ESG” by conducting a comparative analysis of the current sovereign ESG methodologies of commercial ESG providers. The 2021 study articulated the distinct nature of the sovereign ESG segment from corporate ESG and documented fundamental shortcomings in sovereign ESG methodologies, such as the “ingrained income bias”, lack of consensus on environmental performance, and conflation of risk and sustainability objectives. While sovereign ESG methodologies have evolved since 2021, the significant correlation across providers of aggregate, S, and G scores persist. In response to market demand there has been a notable shift towards greater focus on the E pillar against growing heterogeneity on climate and environmental considerations across ESG providers. The findings underscore the disparity between perceptions and realities in implementing a sustainability strategy within the sovereign debt asset class. This necessitates a reevaluation of sovereign ESG scoring methodologies towards outcome-based metrics and urges a globally coordinated effort to establish robust sustainability measurement frameworks.
May 17, 2024
EMDE Central Bank Interventions during COVID-19 to Support Market Functioning
Description: This paper examines emerging market and developing economy (EMDE) central bank interventions to maintain financial stability during the COVID-19 pandemic. Through empirical analysis and case study reviews, it identifies lessons for designing future programs to address challenges faced in EMDEs, including less-developed financial markets and lower levels of institutional credibility. The focus is on the functioning of the financial markets that are key to maintaining financial stability—money, securities, and FX funding markets. Several lessons emerge, including: (i) objectives should be well-specified and communicated to facilitate eventual exit; (ii) intervention triggers should prioritize liquidity metrics over prices; (iii) actions should be sufficiently large to address market dysfunction; (iv) the risks of fiscal dominance and moral hazard should be minimized; and (v) program design should incentivize self-liquidation by appropriate pricing or through short-term operations that quickly liquidate. While interventions may increase risks to central bank balance sheets, potentially challenging policy solvency and operational independence, a well-designed framework can significantly mitigate these risks.
May 17, 2024
Echoes Across Borders: Macroeconomic Spillover Effects of Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa
Description: This paper quantifies the macroeconomic spillover effects of conflict within sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries using a new Conflict Spillover Index (CSI), which accounts for conflict intensity and distance from conflict-affected countries. Our findings reveal an escalation in conflict spillovers across SSA since 2011, marked by considerable cross-country heterogeneity. Impulse responses show that conflict spillovers shocks significantly and persistently hinder economic growth, while concurrently elevating inflation in the “home” country. Conflict spillover shocks are also associated with increases in (current) government spending and government debt. Furthermore, the international trade transmission channel of spillovers operates mostly through increased imports, while negative effects on FDI winddown over time. Moreover, state-dependent impulse responses underscore the importance of good governance, fiscal space, and foreign aid in attenuating the adverse macroeconomic spillover effects of conflict. The detrimental impact of conflict on output is more severe in environments with weaker governance and limited fiscal space. Government expenditures tend to rise following a spillover shock in contexts of high governmental effectiveness, possibly reflecting the use of policy buffers to respond to shocks. In that context, the papers shed light on important factors to promote resilience in SSA economies.
May 10, 2024
Forecasting Tail Risk via Neural Networks with Asymptotic Expansions
Description: We propose a new machine-learning-based approach for forecasting Value-at-Risk (VaR) named CoFiE-NN where a neural network (NN) is combined with Cornish-Fisher expansions (CoFiE). CoFiE-NN can capture non-linear dynamics of high-order statistical moments thanks to the flexibility of a NN while maintaining interpretability of the outputs by using CoFiE which is a well-known statistical formula. First, we explain CoFiE-NN. Second, we compare the forecasting performance of CoFiE-NN with three conventional models using both Monte Carlo simulation and real data. To do so, we employ Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) as our main specification of the NN. We then apply the CoFiE-NN for different asset classes, with a focus on foreign exchange markets. We report that CoFiE-NN outperfoms the conventional EGARCH-t model and the Extreme Value Theory model in several statistical criteria for both the simulated data and the real data. Finally, we introduce a new empirical proxy for tail risk named tail risk ratio under CoFiE-NN. We discover that the only 20 percent of tail risk dynamics across 22 currencies is explained by one common factor. This is contrasting to the fact that 60 percent of volatility dynamics across the same currencies is explained by one common factor.
May 10, 2024
Conflicts and Growth: The R&D Channel
Description: Violent conflicts are typically associated with a long-lasting drag on economic output, yet establishing causality based on macro-data remains as a challenge. This study attempts to build causality in the conflict-growth nexus by exploiting within-country variation across industries’ technological intensity. It identifies a channel through which conflicts can impact growth, i.e., by hindering R&D activities. The analysis is based on industry-level data from two-digit manufacturing industries for a large sample of countries over the last four decades. The results show that conflicts lead to a decline in labor productivity growth, particularly in industries with higher technological intensity. The estimated magnitude of the differential effect of conflicts on labor productivity growth in high-tech industries is large. Moreover, the additional labor productivity loss in those industries in the years of conflicts does not seem to be offset in the post-conflict period neither. The findings offer insight into the observed patterns of durable declines in income in the aftermath of conflicts, considering the role of technological progress and innovation in long-term economic growth.
May 10, 2024
Intra-African Migration: Exploring the Role of Human Development, Institutions, and Climate Shocks
Description: We examine push and pull factors, including demographic, geography, culture, economic and human development, politics and climate, and uncover the key determinants shaping migration patterns within Africa. Our findings emphasize the significance of political (instability, ethnic tensions) and socio-demographic (human development, common language, population size and structure) factors, climate shocks, along with economic motivations, in driving intra-African migration. Understanding these multifaceted factors is vital for policymakers in formulating effective strategies to leverage human capital mobility to promote sustainable development in the region.
May 3, 2024
Strengthening Social Protection to Pave the Way for Technological Innovation: Evidence from the U.S.
Description: This paper investigates the impact of automation on the U.S. labor market from 2000 to 2007, specifically examining whether more generous social protection programs can mitigate negative effects. Following Acemoglu and Restrepo (2020), the study finds that areas with higher robot adoption reduced employment and wages, in particular for workers without collegue degree. Notably, the paper exploits differences in social protection generosity across states and finds that areas with more generous unemployment insurance (UI) alleviated the negative effects on wages, especially for less-skilled workers. The results suggest that UI allowed displaced workers to find better matches The findings emphasize the importance of robust social protection policies in addressing the challenges posed by automation, contributing valuable insights for policymakers.
May 3, 2024
Monetary Policy Transmission in Emerging Markets: Proverbial Concerns, Novel Evidence
Description: Doubts persist about the effectiveness of monetary transmission in emerging markets, but the empirical evidence is scarce due to challenges in identifying monetary policy shocks. In this paper, we construct new monetary policy shocks using novel analysts’ forecasts of policy rate decisions. Crucial for identification, analysts can update forecasts up to the policy meeting, allowing them to incorporate any relevant data release. Using these shocks, we show that monetary transmission in emerging markets operates similarly to advanced economies. Monetary tightening leads to a persistent increase in bond yields, a contraction in real activity, and a delayed reduction in inflation. Furthermore, monetary policy impacts leveraged firms more strongly.